Europe Small Modular Reactor Market Report

Europe Small Modular Reactor Market Size

The Europe modular reactor market size was valued at USD 2.29 billion in 2024 and is anticipated to reach USD 2.48 billion in 2025 and USD 4.45 billion by 2033, growing at a CAGR of 8.33% during the forecast period from 2025 to 2033.

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are nuclear energy systems with electrical outputs typically below three hundred megawatts that are designed for factory fabrication,n modular deployment,,nt and enhanced safety through passive cooling mechanisms. These reactors are being evaluated not as replacements for large baseload plants but as targeted solutions for decarbonizing remote communities, industrial heat demand, and grid-constrained regions where intermittent renewables face limitations. The European context is distinct due to its diverse energy policies, fragmented regulatory landscape, and public sensitivity to nuclear technology. According to multiple sources, European industrial heat demand largely remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, particularly for high-temperature processes, posing a significant challenge for complete electrification efforts. Further, as per research, nuclear energy in the European Union continues to be a substantial contributor to the low-carbon electricity mix, generating a significant share of power alongside growing renewable sources. Several potential sites for future SMR deployment are being evaluated across Eastern and Northern Europe, where strong decarbonization needs and suitable grid conditions align, despite no SMRs being operational there yet. These foundational energy and industrial realities, not commercial forecasts, frame the strategic relevance of small modular reactors in Europe’s net-zero trajectory.

MARKET DRIVERS

Industrial Decarbonization Imperatives Create Niche Demand for High Temperature Process Heat

The region’s heavy industries face binding mandates to eliminate fossil fuel use in high-temperature processes, which is among the key drivers of the Europe small modular reactors market. This creates a unique opening for small modular reactors that can deliver stable heat above five hundred degrees Celsius. According to research, industrial sectors like cement, steel, and chemicals contribute to the total greenhouse gas emissions, primarily due to high demand for thermal energy rather than electricity. Currently, only a small portion of the heat demand in the cement industry can be met by existing renewable alternatives, largely due to constraints related to the required temperatures and continuous supply. Small modular reactors using high-temperature gas or molten salt coolants offer a technically viable pathway where hydrogen or biomass fall short. Some companies in Finland and Sweden have begun exploring the potential of integrating small modular reactors into steel production processes. Furthermore, the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism imposes escalating compliance costs on carbon-intensive imports, incentivizing domestic producers to adopzero-emissionon heat sources. This regulatory and technical confluence positions SMRs not as generic power generators but as specialized enablers of hard-to-abate industrial decarbonization.

Grid Stability Needs in Remote and Island Regions Favor Modular Nuclear Deployment

Peripheral and island territories in the region struggle with energy security and renewable intermittency, making SMRs attractive for localized baseload generation, which further contributes to the expansion of the Europe small modular reactor market. According to research, Many islands within the European Union rely heavily on diesel generators for a significant portion of their electricity needs, leading to very high generation costs. The Greek Aegean and Finnish Åland archipelagos exemplify this vulnerability, ty where grid isolation limits interconnection, and storage solutions remaincost-prohibitivee at scale. Small modular reactors provide a more efficient, compact alternative for power generation compared to certain renewable energy sources like solar or wind. A specific location on the Black Sea coast has been identified as a possible site for a small modular reactor to support local needs such as water desalination and port electrification, without adding stress to the existing power grid. Similarly, the European Commission’s Clean Energy for EU Islands initiative lists nuclear microreactors among eligible technologies for clean energy transition funding. These geographies demand resilient autonomous systems where SMRs’ passive safety and long refueling cycles align with logistical and environmental constraints that larger plants cannot address.

MARKET RESTRAINTS

Absence of Harmonized Nuclear Regulatory Frameworks Delays Project Timelines

The region lacks a unified licensing process for SMRs, which restricts the growth of the Europe small modular reactor market. This results in fragmented and protracted approval pathways that deter investment and standardization. According to the European Nuclear Safety Regulators Group, each member state maintains independent regulatory authorities with divergent requirements for site selection, safety analysis, and waste management. The United Kingdom’s Office for Nuclear Regulation uses a system for generic design assessment, contrasting with France’s national authority, which integrates reactor-specific reviews into its periodic safety evaluation process. This inconsistency prevents manufacturers from achieving economies of scale production, as each country demands custom engineering adaptations. The European Commission and industry stakeholders have indicated that the lack of aligned safety and licensing requirements across member states presents a significant challenge that could delay the deployment of SMRs in the EU compared to other global regions. Furthermore, countries like Germany and Austria maintain constitutional anti-nuclear stances, blocking cross-border knowledge sharing. The absence of a unified European technical standard or common regulatory framework, such as the single federal pathway being developed in the US under its new regulations, means the EU market remains fragmented, compelling developers to address diverse national requirements that raise costs and hinder wider deployment.

Persistent Public and Political Opposition Constrain Site Selection and Financing

Public skepticism toward new nuclear projects remains high across several EU member states and limits viable deployment locations and access to green finance instruments, despite shifting narratives on nuclear energy, which also acts as an impediment to the Europe small modular reactor market. Public support for the construction of new nuclear power plants remains limited across many European nations, with significant opposition observed in specific member states. Also, public sentiment regarding nuclear energy has influenced regulatory frameworks, resulting in more rigorous classification processes for new reactor technologies under sustainability standards. Consequently, major banks restrict lending to nuclear projects, citing environmental, social,,l and governance criteria. Even in pro-nuclear nations like Poland, local communities have blocked proposed SMR sites through legal challenges, es citing waste and safety concerns. A notable portion of early-stage nuclear projects has been discontinued due to challenges in securing social acceptance rather than a lack of technical viability. This sociopolitical friction creates uncertainty that deters private capital and slows public procurement despite strong decarbonization rationales.

MARKET OPPORTUNITIES

Integration with Green Hydrogen Production Opens Dual-Output Revenue Models

SMRs can simultaneously generate carbon-free electricity and high temperature heat for efficient thermochemical or high temperature electrolysis hydrogen production, which provides new growth opportunities for the Europe small modular reactor market. This creates diversified revenue streams. According to sources, high-temperature steam electrolysis using nuclear heat consistently shows higher efficiency compared to conventional electrolysis powered by grid electricity due to thermodynamic advantages. The European Clean Hydrogen Partnership focuses on research and funding calls, but major integrated nuclear hydrogen pilot projects, such as those involving the Rolls-Royce SMR concept in the UK targeting industrial clusters like Teesside, are typically identified and advanced as national initiatives or part of broader European schemes like the Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEIs). Furthermore, the EU’s Hydrogen Bank has allocated funding for production contracts that explicitly include nuclear-derived hydrogen as eligible, provided it meets the criteria of an upcoming certification framework. This initiative indicates a direction towards recognizing the role of various energy sources in hydrogen production efforts within the region. Countries plan to co-locate SMRs with hydrogen valleys to supply steel and fertilizer plants. This synergy transforms SMRs from single product assets into integrated clean energy hubs capable of capturing value across power, fuel,l and industrial markets, which enhances economic viability in a competitive low-carbon landscape.

Defense and Critical Infrastructure Applications Unlock Non-Civilian Demand Channels

SMRs are gaining traction as secure energy sources for military bases, data centers, and critical infrastructure, which require uninterrupted zero-emission power, and thereby generate fresh prospects for the Europe small modular reactor market expansion. Several military installations within Europe use diesel supply chains that have been noted for their vulnerabilities. Backup power systems at these locations operate for many hours each year. In France, a study is being conducted to explore the potential for deploying an advanced nuclear power source at a major naval base to help ensure energy autonomy, particularly during geopolitical disruptions. For large data centers, energy resilience has been identified as a top priority for cybersecurity considerations. These facilities consume a substantial amount of electricity annually. Companies are developing hardened SMR designs with electromagnetic pulse protection and ccyber-securecontrol systems tailored for these high-security applications. This defense and digital infrastructure nexus creates a politically resilient demand segment less susceptible to public opposition and more aligned with strategic autonomy imperatives under the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act.

MARKET CHALLENGES

First-of-a-Kind Engineering Costs and Supply Chain Immaturity Inflate Capital Expenditure

SMRs in Europe face significant first-of-a-kind premiums due to immature supply chains and a lack of serial manufacturing infrastructure, which challenges the growth of the Europe small modular reactor market. This is despite promises of cost reduction through factory production. Small modular reactor (SMR) projects in Europe require significant initial investment per unit of power produced, with costs similar to or exceeding those of larger nuclear facilities at this time. This is largely a consequence of current production methods, which involve custom components rather than mass-produced parts. Europe currently lacks certified nuclear forging facilities capable of producing pressure vessels for SMRs at scale, with most heavy components requiring import from Japan or South Korea. In the European region, there are currently a limited number of companies equipped with the necessary certification for nuclear-grade manufacturing. Furthermore, the absence of standardized interfaces between modules and balance of plant systems necessitates bespoke engineering for each project. These structural gaps preventthe realization of the promised economies of series production and modular assembly, delaying cost competitiveness until at least the late 2030s.

Long-term Waste Management Uncertainty Undermines Licensing and Social Acceptance

The issue of spent fuel storage persists in the EU, with most countries ill-equipped for even the reduced volume from SMRs, which further inhibits the expansion of the Europe small modular reactor market. This absence creates regulatory and public acceptance hurdles for new nuclear projects. Finland and Sweden are leading the European Union in developing permanent deep geological repositories for high-level nuclear waste, while other nations like France continue site characterization and Germany faces an extended national search for a suitable location. European nuclear safety regulators emphasize that all new reactor projects must have a credible long-term waste management and disposal pathway, which presents a significant planning challenge for developers of new nuclear technologies, given the extended timelines for permanent geological repositories to become operational. This temporal disconnect fuels public skepticism as communities fear becoming de facto long-term storage sites. Moreover, some advanced SMR designs using novel coolants or fuels produce waste streams with different radiological profiles that may not fit existing disposal criteria. The Joint Research Centre collaborates on standardizing national data and classification schemes for radioactive waste across the EU, supporting the continuous development and improvement of the existing national regulatory frameworks, which are responsible for managing various waste forms. The lack of a credible EU-wide waste solution creates licensing uncertainty, which will continue to limit approvals and local permits, irrespective of reactor safety or climate advantages.

REPORT COVERAGE

SEGMENTAL ANALYSIS

By Reactor Insights

The Light water reactors (LWR) segment dominated the Europe small modular reactor market in 2024. Its technological maturity, regulatory familiarity, extensive operational history across the continent, and licensing efficiency have contributed to the dominance of the LWR segment. Nuclear power plants in Europe predominantly utilize light water technology, which allows regulators to use established safety assessment procedures for small modular reactor (SMR) variations. This general pattern helps to mitigate approval uncertainty that might be associated with entirely new designs. Furthermore, there is a clear alignment within the industry. European nuclear supply chains are optimized for light water systems, with existing manufacturing protocols for key components like pressure vessels, steam generators, and fuel assemblies already in place. The SMR design selected by the UK government also relies exclusively on this specific technology to leverage the existing infrastructure. The general observation is that light water reactor (LWR) based SMRs demonstrate a relatively high level of technology readiness within Europe, which generally supports and can help accelerate demonstration timelines. These institutional and industrial advantages make LWRs the pragmatic entry point for SMR deployment despite advances in alternative concepts.

The fast neutron reactors (FNR) segment is predicted to witness the highest CAGR of 19.4% during the forecast period as it enables closed fuel cycles by transmuting long-lived actinides and utilizing depleted uranium stockpiles, which addresses Europe’s nuclear waste dilemma. France is managing a significant amount of spent fuel without a permanent disposal solution, as per sources. Besides, FNRs offer higher thermal efficiency and compatibility with hydrogen production, and industrial heat also drives the growth of this segment. A project in Belgium involving a multipurpose sodium-cooled fast-spectrum research reactor is underway and intends to test systems for waste incineration. Furthermore, a European initiative has indicated that fast neutron reactors are considered important for achieving circularity in the use of nuclear fuel. Though still in pre-commercial phases, these sustainability and resource efficiency attributes position FNRs as the high-growth frontier despite higher technical complexity.

By Connectivity Insights

In 2024, the grid-connected SMRs segment held the majority share of the Europe small modular reactor market. Integration with existing transmission infrastructure is attributed to the leading position of the grid-connected SMRs segment. It aligns with national decarbonization strategies targeting baseload electricity replacement for retiring coal and gas plants. A significant majority of proposed small modular reactor sites in Poland, Czechia, and Romania are situated at the locations of decommissioned fossil fuel plants. This co-location strategy utilizes existing infrastructure, specifically providing access to established grid interconnection points. These sites also benefit from the presence of an available local workforce with relevant industrial experience. Furthermore, utilizing these brownfield locations leads to a reduction in the overall costs associated with connecting new power facilities to the electrical grid. Policy alignment with the EU electricity market design further fuels the growth of this segment. Regulatory frameworks require that power generation sources take part in energy capacity and balancing markets, where the operational flexibility of certain technologies, such as small modular reactors (SMRs), offers enhanced value. Government support mechanisms, like the scheme used in the United Kingdom, specifically list SMRs as qualifying low-carbon options, which helps ensure stable revenue streams for projects. Given that electricity usage is anticipated to increase significantly in the future, incorporating these generation methods into the existing large-scale grid infrastructure remains a key consideration for initial adoption strategies.

The off-grid SMRs segment is estimated to register the fastest CAGR of 22.1% from 2025 to 2033. The rapid growth of the off-grid segment is propelled by energy security imperatives in remote and critical infrastructure settings. Numerous islands and Arctic communities rely on diesel generators that entail high operational expenses and significant environmental impacts. Off-grid SMRs offer autonomous zero-emission power with refueling intervals exceeding ten years, ideal for logistical constraints. Furthermore, Data centers requiring continuous power supplies see potential in small modular reactors for enhancing energy resilience and reducing carbon emissions. Military authorities are initiating programs to deploy microreactors at remote overseas installations to secure their energy needs. These niche but high-value applications, immune to public grid politics, drive rapid adoption despite smaller unit volumes.

By Application Insights

The power generation segment remained the largest segment in the Europe small modular reactor market in 2024. Grid decarbonization pressure is among the key factors driving the prominence of the power generation segment. Nations are seeking firm, low-carbon electricity to complement variable renewables and replace aging nuclear and fossil fleets. Coal-fired power continues to represent a notable portion of the European electricity mix. The scheduled retirement of coal facilities is projected to result in significant baseload energy deficits in specific regions. Small modular reactors present a potential alternative for maintaining grid stability through their scalable design. These compact nuclear units can be integrated into existing infrastructure without the necessity for extensive new high-voltage transmission networks. An additional growth factor is economic revitalization. Former coal regions are receiving dedicated funding to prioritize small modular reactor projects aimed at retaining jobs and repurposing industrial sites. Small modular reactors maintain high-capacity factors that exceed those of wind and solar power. The reliability of these reactors supports the overall stability of the energy system. Until industrial heat and hydrogen markets mature, power generation will remain the primary commercial anchor for SMR deployment across continental Europe.

The industrial application segment is anticipated to witness the fastest CAGR of 24.5% from 2025 to 203,,3 owing to the urgent need to decarbonize high-temperature processes that cannot be electrified. European cement production requires constant high-temperature heat that current electrical resistance or hydrogen-based methods cannot sufficiently provide. Small modular reactors using molten salt or gas coolants can deliver such heat with zero emissions. Industrial partnerships are evaluating the use of high-temperature small modular reactors to support the manufacturing of direct reduced iron. Numerous chemical manufacturing clusters have been identified as having the specific thermal energy requirements necessary for reactor integration. International trade policies regarding carbon emissions are accelerating the industrial transition toward low-carbon energy alternatives. These regulatory and technical forces position industrial SMRs as the highest growth vector despite longer development timelines.

COUNTRY ANALYSIS

United Kingdom Small Modular Reactor Market Analysis

The United Kingdom led the Europe small modular reactor market and accounted for a 28.3% share in 2024. The dominance of the UK market is driven by decisive policy backing, strategic industrial positioning, and a streamlined regulatory pathway. Government funding was allocated to support the development of a specific small modular reactor design. A particular reactor model has been identified as a national platform for potential future use. The safety and environmental assessment process for this reactor is proceeding. Completion of the regulatory assessment for the reactor design is anticipated to occur in due course, which would then facilitate project-specific approvals. Several locations across the nation have been designated as potential sites for new nuclear projects, including some former industrial areas. Utilizing small modular reactors is considered a key approach in achieving national climate objectives. This approach is expected to have a positive impact on the domestic job market and related industries. This combination of public funding, regulatory agility, ty and industrial strategy ensures the UK maintains a first mover advantage despite broader European hesitancy.

France Small Modular Reactor Market Analysis

France was the second largest country in the Europe small modular reactor market by holding a share of 21.7% in 2024. The growth of the French market is attributed to its robust nuclear industrial base and national strategy to diversify reactor portfolios. The French government has directed specific funding toward the advancement of small modular reactors (SMRs) within its national investment strategy. This funding supports the development of several domestic designs, including the pressurized water reactor concept led by EDF and the sodium-cooled ASTER concept from Orano. Authorities have indicated potential locations for future demonstration sites in different regions, subject to environmental review processes. France’s long-standing expertise in light water and fast neutron technology enables rapid prototyping with the CEA research agency operating advanced test loops at Cadarache. This state-led engineering ecosystem, supported by public acceptance of nuclear energy, positions France as a technological anchor for continental Europe.

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic experienced a steady growth in the Europe small modular reactor market because of its commitment to phase out coal by 2033 and replace aging Soviet era nuclear units. A utility is conducting a selection process for potential small reactor projects at an existing site. Energy planning documents suggest nuclear power is a necessary component of the country's future electricity mix. Public funding supports development in advanced nuclear technologies, including aspects related to smaller reactor deployment, and the general population favors new nuclear energy construction. Its central location and grid stability also make it a potential export hub for neighboring Slovakia and Poland. These factors establish the Czech Republic as a pragmatic and politically stable deployment leader in Central Europe.

Poland Small Modular Reactor Market Analysis

Poland holds a noteworthy position in the Europe small modular reactor market because of its ambitious co-phased-out plan and energy sovereignty goals. The national strategy anticipates an increased role for small modular reactors (SMRs) in the future energy landscape. These reactors are expected to contribute to the replacement of certain power generation facilities in the Silesia region and support industrial processes in Włocławek. Collaboration efforts are underway with different international energy companies regarding potential reactor deployment and the testing of microreactors. Funding has been dedicated to support the development of the necessary infrastructure for new nuclear technologies, including the establishment of a specific regulatory framework for small modular reactors. Public opinion research indicates significant societal support for nuclear energy within the country, suggesting a favorable environment for new projects. Numerous communities are exploring energy transition options, and small modular reactors are seen as a potential pathway for both environmental goals and continued economic activity. This dynamic positions the nation as a key market for new nuclear technology in the region

Romania Small Modular Reactor Market Analysis

Romania is likely to expand in the Europe small modular reactor market over the forecast period due to its active international partnerships and focus on grid-constrained regions. The country has established a partnership to install small modular reactors at a former coal facility. This project is intended to generate power that supports regional carbon reduction goals. The initiative further aims to enhance the stability of the surrounding power grid. Romania also benefits from European Bank for Reconstruction and Development financing and access to Euratom research funds for fuel cycle innovation. The Technical University of Bucharest implemented a specialized engineering curriculum focused on small modular reactors to foster local technical proficiency. Romania utilizes small modular reactor technology to address electricity reliability in rural regions and provide sustainable heating for industrial sectors. Small modular reactors serve as a dual-purpose tool for advancing energy accessibility and modernizing industrial infrastructure. The deployment of these reactors aligns with the country’s efforts to strengthen its energy position within a strategically significant geographical area.

COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE

Competition in the Europe small modular reactor market is defined by a race to achieve regulatory approval and secure first-of-a-kind demonstration sites amid fragmented national policies and public sentiment. The market features a mix of domestic champions like Rolls-Royce and EDF alongside international entrants such as NuScale, each vying to establish technological and regulatory precedence. Unlike the mature energy sector,s competition centers less on price and more on design certification, speed, supply chain localization,,n and alignment with national industrial strategy. The absence of a unified EU nuclear framework compels developers to tailor approaches per country, creating high entry complexity. Success depends on public-private collaboration, state backing, ng and integration whard-to-abatebate sectors like steel and chemicals. While no commercial SMR operates in Europe yet, the next five years will determine which designs gain traction through pilot projects in the UK, Czechia, Romania, and Poland, shaping long-term market architecture.

KEY MARKET PLAYERS

A few of the market players that are dominating the Europe small modular reactor market are

• Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
• Terra Power, LLC.
• EDF
• Fluor Corporation
• NuScale Power, LLC.
• X Energy LLC
• General Electric Company
• General Atomics Corporation
• Brookfield Asset Management
• Rolls-Royce plc.
• ULTRA SAFE NUCLEAR
• Holtec International
• Moltex Energy
• Westinghouse Electric Company LLC.
• Terrestrial Energy Inc.

Top Players In The Market

• Rolls-Royce SMR is a UK-based developer advancing a forty seven megawatt light water small modular reactor designed for factory fabrication and rapid deployment across Europe. The company contributes to the global market by establishing a standardized design compatible with existing regulatory frameworks and supply chains. It also formed the UK SMR Consortium with over three hundred suppliers to localize manufacturing and create a scalable production line. By focusing on modularity, regulatory alignment, and industrial mobilization,n Rolls-Royce positions its SMR as a replicable model for countries seeking nuclear entry without legacy infrastructure.
• EDF is a French energy major developing the NUWARD small modular reactor concept in partnership with the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission and other industrial stakeholders. The company contributes globally by integrating European nuclear safety standards with advanced passive cooling and digital instrumentation. It also launched a fuel cycle sustainability program to ensure compatibility with existing European enrichment and fabrication facilities. Through its deep utility experience and state backed R and D, EDF aims to deliver a commercially viable SMR that supports industrial decarbonization and grid stability across the continent.
• NuScale Power is a US-based technology provider actively expanding its European footprint through strategic alliances and site-specific feasibility studies. The company’s VOYGR SMR design, featuring a sixty megawatt module witha integral pressurized water reactor, has gained attention for its certified safety profile under the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. It also established a European engineering office in London to support licensing activities under national regulators. By offering a proven design and flexible deployment model,s NuScale accelerates SMR adoption in countries with limited nuclear experience but strong decarbonization mandates.

Top Strategies Used by the Key Market Participants

Key players in the Europe small modular reactor market pursue regulatory harmonization by engaging early with national safety authorities to align designs with existing nuclear codes. They form national industrial consortia to localize supply chains and securegovernment funding. Companies prioritize standardization through factory-built modules to reduce on-site construction time and costs. Strategic site selection focuses on repurposing retired fossil fuel plants to leverage existing grid connections and community acceptance. Additionally, they integrate SMRs with industrial applications such as hydrogen production and district heating to diversify revenue and enhance decarbonization impact.

RECENT MARKET NEWS

• In March 2024, Rolls-Royce SMR completed Phase One of the UK Generic Design Assessment and announced site preparation at Trawsfynydd for Europe’s first SMR deployment, targeting grid connection by 2031.
• In May 2024, EDF submitted the preliminary safety report for its NUWARD small modular reactor to France’s Nuclear Safety Authority and initiated regulatory dialogue with Czech and Polish counterparts.
• In February 2024, NuScale Power signed a binding agreement with Romania’s Nuclearelectrica to deploy the first VOYGR SMR plant at Doiceșt, i with construction scheduled to begin in 2027.
• In June 2024 Rolls-Royceee SMR launched the UK SMR Manufacturing Consortium, uniting over three hundred suppliers to establish a domestic production line for reactor modules and components.
• In April 2024, EDF partnered with the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission to launch a fuel cycle sustainability program ensuring NUWARD compatibility with European enrichment and fabrication infrastructure.

MARKET SEGMENTATION

This research report on the Europe small modular reactor market is segmented and sub-segmented into the following categories.

By Reactor Type

• Light Water Reactor (LWR)
• Fast Neutron Reactor (FNR)
• Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)

By Connectivity

• Off Grid
• Grid Connected

By Deployment

• Single Module Power Plant
• Multi-Module Power Plant

By Power Rating

• Up to 100 MW
• 101 to 200 MW
• 201 to 300 MW

By Location

• Land
• Marine

By Application

• Desalination
• Power Generation
• Industrial

By Country

• UK
• France
• Spain
• Germany
• Italy
• Russia
• Sweden
• Denmark
• Switzerland
• Netherlands
• Turkey
• Czech Republic
• Rest of Europe